Why Are There 73 Books in the Bible Used by Roman Catholics?

Introduction

What collection of books make up the Bible? Roman Catholics say that there are 73. Protestants say that there are 66. Who is correct, and who decides? After all, the Bible was not written instantaneously as a complete package. There is a history to its formation as a collection of books. A variety of authors wrote these biblical books across multiple time periods. “Long ago, at many times and in many ways, God spoke to our fathers by the prophets” (Hebrews 1:1). Is the Bible just a man-made collection of books put together based on the personal preferences of superstitious people? After all, some books allegedly only made it into the Bible by a few votes! How do we know that the bishops who voted on these books got it right? These are important questions that we will address in this article.

The Bible Used by Roman Catholics Has 73 Books Because It Includes Some Deuterocanonical Books

The Bible used by Roman Catholics has 73 books because of the inclusion of some deuterocanonical books (or “second canon” books), which Protestants call the Apocrypha. These seven additional books were first recognized as deuterocanonical by early Christians who used the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures that contained these extra texts.

At the risk of over-simplification, the Protestant Reformers excluded them from the canon of Scripture because they were already regarded as deuterocanonical. But the Roman Catholic Church affirmed their inclusion in the Bible at the Council of Trent in the 16th century. Thus, the Bible used by Romans Catholics comprises 73 books, because they wanted to include some deuterocanonical books.

What the Bible Is and Why It Matters

To best answer questions about how many books are in the Bible, we must first understand what the Bible is. Is the Bible a product of human authorship, or divine? Did God or humans write it? Is the Bible authoritative? Does the Bible contain errors?

When we try to understand a book’s nature and purpose, we must first understand the book on its own terms. What does the book claim about itself? For example, a car repair manual claims that it is a manual for a particular kind of vehicle. Suppose we decided to disregard this claim and treat the car manual like a book of poetry. Then we would completely misinterpret it and misunderstand its nature and purpose. Similarly, to understand what kind of book the Bible is, we must first understand what the Bible claims about itself.

God Is the Primary Author

Scripture presents itself as a divine self-disclosure, where God voluntarily condescends to reveal himself to us by his word (1 Sam 3:21). The Bible teaches that the words of Scripture are from God, not humans (2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Thess 2:13; 1 Cor 2:13; Gal 1:11-12).¹ The first of these words was even inscribed by God’s own finger (Exod 31:18; 32:16; Deut 9:10).²

Ultimately all Scripture is God’s breathed and exhaled word (2 Tim 3:16-17; 1 Chr 28:19),³ down to the very smallest letter and pen stroke (Matt 5:18; Luke 16:17).⁴ Consequently, the Bible is a sacred text since God is its primary author, not humans. Scripture does not approach God like Mr. Potato Head, constructing Mr. Potato Head in whatever fashion people desire. God is not fashioned according to the speculations of humans (Matt 16:13-17). Instead, the Bible is God’s self-revelation to us in written form.

God Is Authoritative

Since the Bible presents itself as the word of God, it claims full authority for itself (Matt 7:28-29; Mark 1:22, 27; Luke 4:32, 36).⁵ It is the final standard of faith and life. The Bible calls us to test everything according to Scripture (Acts 17:11; 1 John 4:1; 1 Thess 5:20-22; Matt 4:1-11), since God’s word is more certain than personal experience (2 Pet 1:16-19; Luke 16:27-31).

This authority is all-pervasive. It operates at all times (Isa 55:10-11; Heb 4:12), covers all areas of life (1 Cor 10:31; 2 Pet 1:3; 2 Tim 3:16-17), and covers every form of Scriptural language. It is also radical, unqualified, and unrestricted (Heb 11:17-19). Consequently, the authority of Scripture does not derive from the church. The church is composed of mere humans who are unable to impart authority to the word of God. The Bible’s authority does not derive from anyone else other than God Himself.

Humans are the Agents

While God is the primary author of Scripture, God chose to work through human agents to write His word. We often refer to as the inspiration of Scripture. Inspiration does not mean that God has breathed something into this body of writings. (When we speak of inspiration, we do not mean it in the same way we speak of an inspiring piece of music.) It does mean that God has breathed out or exhaled this body of writings (2 Tim 3:16; Isa 40:5).

Scripture teaches that the apostles and prophets were carried along by the Holy Spirit (2 Pet 1:21; 1 Pet 1:10-11). They preached the gospel by means of the Holy Spirit (1 Pet 1:12; Neh 9:30; Zech 7:12).⁶ They spoke the words that the Holy Spirit put in their mouths (Deut 18:18; Isa 51:16; 59:21)⁷ and taught them (1 Cor 2:13; Acts 21:11; Heb 3:7; 10:15). The Holy Spirit directed what they should say as well as how to say it (Matt 10:19-20; Mark 13:11; Luke 12:11-12).

In inspiring the preaching of the gospel, the Holy Spirit guided the apostles and prophets into all truth (John 16:13). What they said was true (Acts 26:25; Gal 4:16; John 10:41; 19:35; 21:24)⁸ and not a lie (Rom 9:1; 1 Tim 2:7; Gal 1:20).⁹ Consequently, the gospel message proclaimed by the apostles and recorded in Scripture is sure and certain (2 Pet 1:19). It is wholly true and without error (Eph 1:13; Col 1:5; Gal 2:5, 14). Bible scholars often refer to this as the inerrancy and infallibility of Scripture, which Scripture claims about itself.

The Infallibility of Scripture

Scripture teaches that all of God’s words are flawless and true (Prov 30:5; Ps 12:6; 18:30; Ps 119:43, 160).¹⁰ This implies that the Bible is a book full of truths without error (2 Tim 2:15; Jas 1:18, Dan 10:21). Scripture also teaches that God sees everything (Job 28:24; Prov 15:3; Heb 4:13),¹¹ knows everything (1 John 3:20; John 2:24-25; 16:30; 21:17),¹² and has perfect knowledge (Job 37:16). Consequently, He is not in a position to make mistakes. Furthermore, Scripture teaches that God cannot lie (Heb 6:18; Num 23:19; Titus 1:2)¹³ or contradict Himself (2 Tim 2:13; 2 Cor 1:18) and that God always speaks the truth (Isa 45:19; John 5:32; 8:40, 45). Scripture cannot be broken (John 10:35). From these things it follows that everything which Scripture says must be true.

The Bible tells us that Jesus is the living word. He is both divine and human. Because of his conception by the Holy Spirit, his humanity is not sinful. In a similar way, the written word (the Bible) is a divine-human document. It does not contain errors simply because humans wrote it. The same Spirit carried its authors along to write what God intended (2 Pet 1:21)

The Canon of Scripture

We have now gained a clearer understanding of what kind of book the Bible is (what it claims about itself). This prepares us to address questions concerning the collection of books that make up the Bible. We call this collection the canon of Scripture. Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox churches disagree concerning the number of books in the entire Bible.

• Protestants believe there are 66 (39 in the Old Testament and 27 in the New Testament);
• Roman Catholics believe there are 73 (46 in the Old Testament and 27 in the New Testament);
• Greek Orthodox believe there are 79 (52 in the Old Testament and 27 in the New Testament);
• Ethiopian Orthodox believe there are 82 (55 in the Old Testament and 27 in the New Testament).

Table 1: Canonical Bible Books All Christians Agree Are Part of the Bible

This Table includes the list of books that all these groups believe are part of the Bible.

Table 2: Disputed (Deuterocanonical) Books

This Table provides the list of additional books that appear in Roman Catholic, Greek Orthodox, and Ethiopian Orthodox Bibles. We refer to these as the Deuterocanon or second canon. Protestants refer to these books as the Apocrypha since they do not believe these books are part of the Bible.

What Determines Which Books Make Up the Canon?

As we have seen, different groups of people disagree with each other regarding which books comprise the Bible. How do we know who is correct? What ultimately determines which books make up the canon of Scripture? To answer this, we must understand the distinction between the determination of the canon and the recognition of the canon.

What is the case (determination) and what we know to be the case (recognition) are very different things. Consider the fact that people may have cancer without knowing that they have cancer. What is the case (having cancer) is distinct from what one knows to be the case (knowing about having cancer). Similarly, what is the case (determining the canon) is distinct from what we know to be the case (recognizing the canon). What determines which books make up the Bible is distinct from recognizing the books that make up the Bible.

The Church Recognizes the Canon

Oftentimes people assume that the church determines and decides which books make up the Bible. However, the church does not do this: it simply recognizes which books make up the Bible. These books do not depend on the church any more than the force of gravity depends on Isaac Newton. The church instead recognizes the makeup of the Bible, just as Isaac Newton recognized what the force of gravity is. The acceleration of gravity on Earth is 9.81 m/s² regardless of whether we discovered it. In the same way, the biblical canon is determined and set regardless of whether it is acknowledged by the church.

The church’s role is like that of officers who receive many letters, some of which are from their commander. The officers must recognize the set of letters that are from their commander and follow those since they are authoritative. Since the officers are not commanders, they are unable to make a collection of letters authoritative. Instead, authority is inherent from the outset in the collection of letters that the commander has written.

In the same way, authority is inherent in the books of the Bible from the outset. The church simply confesses this to be the case and receives these books as God’s revealed word. Consequently, the church has no authority to control, produce, or define the canon. The canon is instead the authoritative foundation on which the church rests, serving as the rule of faith and life. Consequently, the canon controls, produces, and defines the church.

God Determines the Canon

If the church does not determine the canon, then what does determine which books make up the Bible? Simply put, God determines the canon. The books of the Bible do not become authoritative because of the decisions of the church. They are instead authoritative by virtue of what they are, books given by God. Consequently, they become canonical as soon as they are written. God is the author of Scripture and determines the collection of books that make up the Bible. The books that make up Scripture are the ones that God inspired and providentially preserved over time.

The origin of the words of Scripture are from God, not humans (2 Pet 1:20-21; 1 Thess 2:13; 1 Cor 2:13; Gal 1:11-12).¹⁴ The first of these words were inscribed by God’s own finger (Exod 31:18; 32:16; Deut 9:10).¹⁵ Furthermore, God has promised to preserve His word throughout all generations (1 Pet 1:24-25; Isa 40:8; 59:21).¹⁶ Therefore, what makes something canonical is whether it is providentially preserved, written inspiration.

As a result, determining which books make up the Bible does not rest on an authority outside of God’s word. God does not depend on others to authorize His own authority (Heb 6:13; John 8:13-14, 18).¹⁷ Instead, God’s revealed word to us in Scripture functions as our ultimate authority. Consequently, there cannot be something outside of God’s word that is more ultimate in determining the makeup of the Bible. If there were, then Scripture would no longer be the ultimate authority. The thing outside of it would be the ultimate authority. Instead, God determines which books make up the Bible by inspiring them and ensuring their providential preservation over time. We simply recognize which books contain God’s words.

How We Recognize Which Books Make Up the Canon

Since God determines the books that make up the Bible, how do we recognize these authoritative books? How do we distinguish them from other books? How do we know that the church recognized the correct set of books? We use several principles and criteria to recognize and distinguish which books are canonical. Once applied, these principles justify the 66 books recognized by the Protestant church today as the correct books.

Each of these factors is an outworking of applying principles taught in Scripture to the question of the canon. We let God’s word be the authority in providing the necessary guidance and direction about how it should be recognized. There are three biblically-based components that justify and account for the correct recognition of the canon:¹⁸

1. God’s providence
2. Attributes of canonical books
3. The internal testimony of the Holy Spirit

God’s providence ensures that we will be exposed and have access to the books that make up the canon. The attributes of canonical books allow us to then distinguish and identify canonical books from all other currently accessible books. The internal testimony of the Holy Spirit then guides us in correctly identifying these attributes.

1. God’s Providence

The first factor that allows us to correctly recognize the canon of Scripture is God’s providence. Because God sovereignly controls all things (Eph 1:11; Phil 3:21; Heb 1:3; Col 1:17),¹⁹ His purpose and plans are always brought about (Isa 14:24; 37:26; 46:10-11; 55:11),²⁰ and He accomplishes what He pleases (Pss 115:3; 135:6; Job 23:13).²¹ One of God’s purposes is that He intends for His word to guide us in righteous living (2 Tim 3:16-17; Ps 119:9; Matt 4:4).²²

Consequently, He will ensure that the church is exposed and has access to the books that make up the Bible. It is impossible for Christ’s sheep to hear His voice (John 10:4, 27) if they have not been exposed to His written word. Furthermore, God has promised that He will providentially preserve His word throughout all generations (1 Pet 1:24-25; Isa 40:8; 59:21).²³ From these considerations it follows that God in His providence will sovereignly guide the church to recognize the correct books.

2. Attributes of Canonical Books

The second factor that allows us to correctly recognize the canon of Scripture is the attributes of canonical books. Certain attributes of the best apples (ripe, red, not bruised, etc.) allow us to distinguish good apples from bad ones. Similarly, attributes of canonical books let us distinguish books that God authoritatively inspired from those that are not (Matt 7:16-18, 20; 12:33; Luke 6:43-44). We can summarize the three main attributes of canonical books as follows:

i. Divine qualities
ii. Corporate reception
iii. Apostolic origins

We will briefly explore each one of these identifying attributes as it pertains to the recognition of canonical books.

i. Divine Qualities

Because the books of the Bible are God’s word (2 Tim 3:16), they will inherently possess divine qualities. These qualities will reflect the character of the one who inspired them. Canonical books therefore exhibit objective qualities which bear evidence in themselves of their divine nature. We see that God’s imprints and fingerprints appear clearly throughout the natural world (Pss 19:1-2; 50:6; 97:6; Rom 1:20). How much more so do God’s own words emanate qualities that reveal Himself as the author?

These divine qualities include beauty, excellency, majesty, perfection, efficacy, power, unity, and harmony. For example, one way we can recognize a book of the Bible is if what it proclaims comes true (Deut 18:21-22; Jer 28:9; Ezek 33:33). In addition, their own authority often characterizes canonical books. This authority can be explicit with phrases such as “this is what the Lord Almighty says.” (This phrase occurs over 800 times in the Old Testament books, for instance Haggai 2:6). This authority can also be implicit in the power and demand of the message (Matt 7:28-29; Mark 1:22, 27; Luke 4:32, 36).

Another important divine quality of canonical books is their consistency with one another. Since God cannot lie (Heb 6:18; Num 23:19; Titus 1:2)²⁴ or contradict Himself (2 Tim 2:13; 2 Cor 1:18), canonical books will always be consistent with previous revelation (Acts 7:42; 15:15; Deut 13:1-5; 18:20).²⁵ This is why we are commanded to test everything according to previous revelation (1 John 4:1; 1 Thess 5:20-22) as the Bereans did (Acts 17:11).

ii. Corporate Reception

We have seen that the books of the Bible possess the inherent divine qualities of authority, power, and impact. Consequently, these qualities elicit a corporate response from the church. Jesus tells us His sheep hear His voice and follow Him (John 10:4, 27). Therefore, the power and authority inherent in canonical books will cause the church to receive them as God’s word (1 Sam 3:20; Jer 28:9; Ezek 33:33). The canon therefore imposes itself upon the church and causes the church to accept it as authoritative and divine. Consequently, the general consensus of the church is another useful attribute in recognizing which books are canonical.

God redeems not only individuals but a corporate people and church to Himself (1 Pet 2:9; Titus 2:14; Acts 15:14). When He does so, He provides covenant documents which testify to that redemption. God has entrusted the church, as a community, with his very words (Rom. 3:2). Consequently, the church’s corporate reception of a particular book is an indication that the book is canonical.

Throughout Scripture, God-given canonical books were immediately recognized and treated as authoritative by a portion of the church (Dan 9:2; 2 Pet 3:15-16; Acts 1:1).²⁶ By the time of Christ, there was a body of literature that was recognized as authoritative and canonical. This included the law of Moses, the Prophets, and the Psalms (Luke 24:27, 44; John 1:45; Acts 13:15).²⁷

Jesus explicitly recognized the Old Testament canon with the expression “from the blood of Abel to the blood of Zechariah” (Matt 23:35; Luke 11:50-51). Zechariah is not chronologically the last martyr the Old Testament mentions (that would be Uriah, Jeremiah 26:20-23). He is, instead, the last martyr according to the canonical order of the day (2 Chr 24:20-22). That canonical order placed 2 Chronicles last in the canon.

iii. Apostolic Origins

The last attribute possessed by canonical books is their apostolic authorship or belonging to the apostolic deposit.

Apostolic Authorship

The Hebrew term for “apostle” (shaliah) refers to a person who is sent by another as their legally authorized representative.²⁸ Whatever an apostle says is taken to be legally identical with what is said by the person being represented (Exod 4:16, 7:1; Deut 18:19; Jer 15:19). Since Jesus Christ commissioned the apostles as His chosen messengers, whoever received an apostle received Christ Himself (Matt 10:40; Luke 10:16; John 13:20; 15:20). This implied that the apostles spoke for Christ as His legally authorized representatives (1 Thess 2:4). As the authorized representatives of Christ, the apostles serve as the foundation for the church (Eph 2:19-20; Rev 21:14; Matt 16:18).²⁹

Since the apostles were foundational to the church, they exercised the authority of Christ in the church (2 Cor 10:8; 13:10; 1 Thess 2:6). This authority would still be necessary after they died. Consequently, it was necessary for them to preserve their authoritative witness by committing it to writing (2 Pet 1:13-15). This writing, known as the apostolic deposit, formed a pattern of sound teaching for the church.

Apostolic Deposit

The church was to guard this deposit (2 Tim 1:13-14; 1 Tim 6:20) as the standard for Christian life (2 Thess 2:15; 3:6; 1 Cor 11:2) and for all future teaching in the church (2 Tim 2:2). In this way, Jesus, through the apostles, imposed certain writings on the church as authoritative and canonical (2 Pet 3:2).

These writings centered around the message of redemption in Jesus Christ, where God acted in history to deliver His people. Consequently, the apostles serve as the link between these redemptive events and the proclamation of those events. The books that make up the apostolic deposit are therefore not only about Christ’s redemptive work in history. They are also the product of Christ’s redemptive work in history. It is part of the program of historical redemption for the church to recognize the canon. The apostles and the Lord Jesus Christ intended it. As a result, apostolic authorship or belonging to the apostolic deposit are attributes we use in recognizing canonical books.

Note that a book does not require apostolic authorship to be part of the apostolic deposit. A book can be authoritative and belong to the apostolic deposit if it satisfies two criteria. First, the writer must receive infomation directly from an apostle (Luke 1:2; Heb 2:3). Second, its composition also must be during the apostles’ lifetimes when they were supervising the transmission of their witness into writing. This was the case with Mark (2 Tim 4:11; 1 Pet 5:13),³⁰ Luke (Col 4:14; 2 Tim 4:11; Phlm 1:24), James (Acts 12:17; 15:13-21; 21:18; Jas 1:1),³¹ and Jude (Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; Jude 1:1).

3. Internal Testimony of the Holy Spirit

The third factor that allows us to correctly recognize the biblical canon is the internal testimony of the Holy Spirit. Due to the effects of sin on the mind (Rom 1:18, 21, 28; 8:6-7; Eph 4:17-18),³² we are unable to recognize the things of God (1 Cor 2:14; John 8:43, 47; 12:40; 14:17).³³ Consequently, the Holy Spirit’s work is necessary to open our minds to receive the canonical books God has given us (1 Cor 2:12-13; Luke 24:31, 45).³⁴ The internal testimony of the Holy Spirit is not something that stands on its own, relative to each person. It always works in tandem with the public Scriptures to enable us to recognize the divine qualities of canonical books (John 16:13).

These divine qualities are originally the result of the Holy Spirit’s work in inspiring the authors of Scripture (2 Pet 1:21; 1 Cor 2:13; Matt 10:19-20; 22:43).³⁵ Consequently, the Holy Spirit is needed for both the inspiration and the recognition of canonical books. The Holy Spirit opens our eyes to recognize the beauty, harmony, and efficacy of canonical books. As a result, we embrace them as God’s word and realize that they contain the voice of the Shepherd (John 10:4, 27).

Furthermore, the testimony of the Holy Spirit does not just work on an individual level but also a corporate level. The Holy Spirit works in the church as a whole since the church is a body with one Spirit (1 Cor 12:13). This collective body functions as God’s house and dwelling place (Eph 2:22; 1 Tim 3:15; 1 Pet 2:5).³⁶ Consequently, the Holy Spirit guides the church collectively and corporately to recognize the books that belong to the biblical canon.

The Canon’s Recognition Is an Outworking of the Canon’s Determination

In summary, the recognition of the canon is simply an outworking of the determination of the canon. Figure 1 depicts this. Because God is the one who determines the canon, He ultimately determines which books possess canonical attributes. Because He inspired the authors of Scripture, canonical books contain divine qualities. Because He gave His word as a standard for faith and life, the church will corporately receive canonical books. Because He commissioned the apostles to be His authorized representatives, canonical books will belong to the apostolic deposit. God then guides the church in recognizing these attributes through His providence and the internal testimony of the Holy Spirit.

Figure 1: The Canon’s Recognition is an Outworking of the Canon’s Determination

However, this recognition is a process that occurred in time. Canonical books were first written with divine authority. Early Christians then recognized and used these books as an authoritative norm. After that the church reached an official consensus around those books. However, throughout this process, the church was simply recognizing what God had already determined to be the canon of Scripture.

The Process By Which the Church Recognized the Canon

The Early Church

In the early centuries after the apostles, various texts circulated among believers. However, these believers needed clarity regarding which books were truly God’s authoritative word. Clement of Alexandria and Origen of Alexandria contributed significantly to this discourse. In particular, Origen advocated for a distinction between canonical and non-canonical texts. The Septuagint (LXX), a Greek translation of the Hebrew Scriptures, influenced some early Christians and the Alexandrian canon. It shaped their understanding of the Old Testament and introduced additional texts, later deemed deuterocanonical by the Catholic Church.

From the Fourth Century through the Reformation

By the fourth century, the need for a formal recognition of the canon became pressing. In the Easter Letter of A. D. 367, St. Athanasius identified a list of New Testament books closely mirroring the Protestant canon. This list emphasized the books’ apostolic origins and liturgical usage. The Council of Carthage in A.D. 397 confirmed this list, solidifying the canon within the western church.

However, the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century sparked new debates. Martin Luther, questioning the inclusion of certain deuterocanonical books, placed them in an appendix. John Calvin also rejected the inclusion of the deuterocanonical books. He emphasized the sufficiency of the canonical texts for faith and practice, later reflected in the Westminster Confession of Faith. However, the apocryphal books are useful in providing historical details, particularly of the intertestamental period (the time between the completion of the Old Testament and New Testament).

The Catholic Church responded with the Council of Trent (1545-1563), reaffirming the inclusion of the deuterocanonical books. This had been solidified in the Vulgate translation by St. Jerome, commissioned by Pope Damasus I. The Vulgate’s acceptance further entrenched these texts in Catholic tradition. The distinctions regarding canonical versus deuterocanonical books often revolved around their apostolic authorship, historical usage, and theological consistency.

Various Orderings of Biblical Books

The ordering of books also varies. For instance, the Hebrew Bible reflects the TaNaK division (Torah, Nevi’im, Ketuvim – Law, Prophets, and Writings). The longer endings found in Esther and Jeremiah also highlight differences in manuscripts and traditions. Meanwhile, the discovery of the Dead Sea Scrolls in the mid-20th century provided insights into the Hebrew textual manuscripts.

The Canon of Scripture Is Closed

We have seen an overview of the process by which the church recognized the canon, but is the canon closed? Are there more authoritative, inspired books that could yet be included in the canon? To answer this question, we must remember that the canon functions as the authoritative foundation for the church. Christ gave the apostles the authority to lay down the permanent foundation for the church. This occurred once Christ accomplished the key work of redemption in history.

As a result, the apostolic deposit is the final and complete stage of revelation “that was once for all entrusted to God’s holy people” (Jude 1:3). This is due to the fact that the office of an apostle had a specific nonrepeatable one-time function in history. The apostles were not only the foundation of the church (Eph 2:19-20; Rev 21:14; Matt 16:18)³⁷ and the legal spokesmen for Jesus Christ (Matt 10:40; Luke 10:16; John 13:20).³⁸ They were also witnesses of the resurrected Christ (Acts 1:21-26; 1 Cor 9:1; 15:7-9) and were directly commissioned by Him (Matt 10:1-4; Mark 3:14-19; Luke 6:13-16; Gal 1:1).³⁹ These events are clearly not repeatable today.

Furthermore, Paul indicates that the apostolic deposit as the foundation for the church cannot be expanded (1 Cor 3:10-11). He also indicates that he is the last of the apostles (1 Cor 15:7-9). After the apostles died, they could no longer add to or oversee the formation of the apostolic deposit. This permanently closed the canon since we are not to add to God’s word (Rev 22:18; Prov 30:6; Deut 4:2; 12:32).

Recommended Reading

Bruce, F. F., The Canon of Scripture. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2018. 

Kruger, Michael J., Canon Revisited: Establishing the Origins and Authority of the New Testament Books. Wheaton, IL: Crossway, 2012.

Kruger, Michael J., The Question of Canon: Challenging the Status Quo in the New Testament Debate. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic, 2013.

Metzger, Bruce M., The Canon of the New Testament: Its Origin, Development, and Significance. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press, Reprint, 1997.

Footnotes

1. These footnotes exist largely to provide additional Scripture references to the ones in the body of the article. For further Scriptural support that the Bible’s words are God’s words and not those of humans, see also John 7:16; 8:28; 12:49-50; John 14:10, 24 ↩︎
2. Exod 24:12; Exod 34:1, 28; Deut 4:13; 5:22; Deut 10:2, 4; 2 Kgs 17:37; Hos 8:12 ↩︎
3. Jer 36:2, 4, 6; Exod 24:4; 34:27-28; 1 Cor 14:37 ↩︎
4. Gal 3:16; John 10:34-35 ↩︎
5. 1 Cor 14:37; Rom 3:4; John 12:48; 5:45; Isa 8:20; Gal 1:8 ↩︎
6. 2 Sam 23:2; Acts 1:16; 4:25; 21:4; 28:25; Matt 22:43; Mark 12:36 ↩︎
7. Jer 1:9; 5:14; Num 22:38; 23:5, 12, 16 ↩︎
8. 3 John 1:12; 2 Cor 4:2; 6:4, 7; 7:14; Eccl 12:10 ↩︎
9. 2 Cor 11:31; Job 36:4 ↩︎
10. 2 Sam 7:28; 22:31; John 17:17; 1 Kgs 17:24; Rev 19:9; 21:5; 22:6 ↩︎
11. Ps 33:13-14; Jer 23:24 ↩︎
12. Col 2:3; Pss 94:11; 139:1-4; 147:5; Rom 11:33; 1 Kgs 8:39; 2 Chr 6:30; Acts 1:24; 1 Chr 28:9 ↩︎
13. 1 Sam 15:29; Ps 89:35 ↩︎
14. John 7:16; 8:28; 12:49-50; 14:10, 24; 2 Tim 3:16 ↩︎
15. Exod 24:12; Exod 34:1, 28; Deut 4:13; 5:22; 10:2, 4; 2 Kgs 17:37; Hos 8:12 ↩︎
16. Ps 119:89; Matt 5:18; 24:35; Mark 13:31; Luke 16:17; 21:33 ↩︎
17. Gen 22:16; Exod 32:13; Jer 22:5; 44:26; 49:13; 51:14; Isa 45:23; 62:8; Ps 89:35; Amos 4:2; 6:8; 8:7 ↩︎
18. These attributes are introduced by Michael J. Kruger in chapter 3 of Canon Revisited: Establishing the Origins and Authority of the New Testament Books ↩︎
19. Dan 4:17, 25, 32; Dan 5:21; 1 Chr 29:12; 2 Chr 20:6; Pss 22:28; 47:8; Jer 31:35; Isa 45:7 ↩︎
20. Isa 14:26-27; 25:1; 2 Kgs 19:25; Lam 2:17; Ezek 12:25, 28 ↩︎
21. Dan 4:35; Isa 46:10 ↩︎
22. Deut 8:3; 11:18-21; 32:46-47; Rom 15:4 ↩︎
23. Ps 119:89; Matt 5:18; 24:35; Mark 13:31; Luke 16:17; 21:33 ↩︎
24. 1 Sam 15:29; Ps 89:35 ↩︎
25. Gal 1:8-9; 1 John 4:2-3 ↩︎
26. 1 Tim 5:18 quoting Luke 10:7; Exod 24:7; Deut 31:9; Deut 31:11-12, 19, 22, 24-26; Josh 8:34-35; 24:25-27; 2 Kings 23:2-3; 2 Chr 34:30-32; Neh 8:1-3; 8:7-8; 8:13; 8:18; 9:3; 1 Thess 2:13 ↩︎
27. Matt 5:17; 7:12; 11:13; 22:40; Luke 16:16, 29, 31; Acts 24:14; 26:22; 28:23; Rom 3:21 ↩︎
28. “A man’s shaliah is the same as the man himself.” (Talmud, Mishnah Berakhot 5:5) ↩︎
29. 1 Cor 3:10-11; Gal 2:9 ↩︎
30. Acts 12:12, 25; 13:5, 13; 15:37-39; Col 4:10; Phlm 1:24 ↩︎
31. Matt 13:55; Mark 6:3; 1 Cor 15:7; Gal 1:19; 2:9, 12; Jude 1:1 ↩︎
32. Col 1:21; 2 Cor 3:14; 4:4; Isa 44:18; Deut 29:4; Job 17:4; Titus 1:15; 1 Tim 6:5; 2 Tim 3:8 ↩︎
33. Matt 13:13-15; Acts 28:26-27; Isa 6:9-10; 42:20; 48:8; Ezek 12:2; Jer 5:21; 6:10; Rom 11:8; Mark 4:12; 8:18; Luke 8:10 ↩︎
34. Acts 16:14; Ps 119:18 ↩︎
35. Mark 12:36; 13:11; Luke 12:11-12; 1 Pet 1:10-12; Neh 9:30; Zech 7:12; 2 Sam 23:1-2; Acts 1:16; 4:25; 28:25 ↩︎
36. Heb 3:6; 1 Cor 3:9, 16-17; 2 Cor 6:16 ↩︎
37. 1 Cor 3:10-11; Gal 2:9 ↩︎
38. John 15:20; 1 Thess 2:4 ↩︎
39. Acts 9:15; 22:14-15; 26:16 ↩︎